https://doi.org/10.7906Interdisciplinary Description of Complex Systems1334-46841334-4676Hrvatsko interdisciplinarno društvoCroatian Interdisciplinary SocietyIvana Lučića 1, 10000 Zagreb
petra.cacic@indecs.euhttp://www.idd.com.hr10.7906/indecs.20.2.9Original scientific paperSerious Games for Building Data Capacity*Di StasoDavide**1MulderIngrid1JanssenMarijn1KleimanFernando2TU Delft
Delft, The NetherlandsNHL Stenden
Leeuwarden, The Netherlands
This is the extended version of the abstract published in: Vujić, M. and
Šalamon, D., eds.: Book of abstracts *of the National Open Data Conference.
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Traffic and Transport Sciences, *Zagreb,
2021.
Faculty of Industrial Design Engineering,
Landbergstraat 15, 2628 CE Delft, The Netherlands
D.DiStaso@tudelft.nl284202220217918924120222242022CC BY 4.0Puni tekst objavljenih radova besplatno se smije koristiti za osobne, edukacijske ili istraživačke svrhe uz poštovanje autorskih prava autora i izdavača. Korisnici radove smiju besplatno čitati, preuzimati, kopirati, distribuirati, tiskati, prerađivati ili koristiti ih na druge zakonite načine, uz ispravno navođenje izvornika i nekomercijalnu svrhu uporabe.The usage of full-text of the articles can be used exclusively for personal, research-related or educational purposes, with regard to the authors' and publishers' rights. The users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print and transform or use them for any other lawful purpose as long as they attribute the source in an appropriate manner and for the non-commercial purpose of the usage.
Open data can support the creation of new services, facilitate research, and provide insights into everyday issues affecting citizens. Although public administrations are making efforts to create sustainable and inclusive open data systems, there is limited capacity to identify suitable datasets, clean, release, and reuse them. Serious games offer a possible solution for data capacity building and have already been used to train civil servants and citizens on the topic of open data. This research presents a review of serious games and discusses their potential for data capacity building. The games selected in the review are classified and described according to their different learning outcomes, formats, and type of media. Most serious games found in this review can be categorized as teaching games and are designed to raise data awareness, which is only a limited aspect of building data capacity. We found a lack of design games, research games, and policy games. Given their success for ideation in other fields, design games offer a particular opportunity to build data capacity by generating new ideas about how to reuse open datasets.
data capacityserious gamesopen data
Open data is any data that is freely accessible and reusable by anyone for any
purpose 1. Open data can be reused to create
or improve services, and to identify local issues and community needs more easily
2. While public sector organizations play
a significant role in releasing datasets to the public, the private sector may also
open datasets to the public 3. In this
research, we will refer to the general concept of open data to include datasets
released by both the public and the private sector. The opening and reuse of
datasets involves different actors and services, such as data providers, publishing
organizations, infomediaries, tools for data storage and analysis, and researchers
looking for data 3. Opening data can
effectively create a network of complex interdependencies and networks of
interaction, an “ecosystem” 3. Within the open
data ecosystem, non-expert users (such as citizens and public administrators) have
an important role in that they are aware of the issues and needs of their
communities, which can be addressed using open data 4. On the other hand, expert users, such as civic hackers and
developers, own the skills required to implement practical solutions using open data
4. Mulder, Jaskiewicz, and Morelli 5 explored recent paradigm shifts that have the
potential to seed change within societal systems and look specifically at how open
data can become a new type of “commons’" that can support digital citizenship. In
the current work, we explore the use of serious games for building data capacity in
problem-driven societies. Alongside the delivery of open data-driven solutions, open
data can only become a new commons if a larger community and culture of working with
data is created around it. Serious games offer an important tool to bring together
both expert and non-expert users and transfer the required knowledge and skills
needed to work with open data. Serious games differentiate themselves from
entertainment games in that their main purpose is not to amuse, but to educate 6 and they have been in use for over a decade to
facilitate learning and ideation 7. Some
serious games adapt game mechanics from commercial video games to achieve
educational objectives. For example, “Socrates Jones: Pro Philosopher” 8 takes inspiration from “Ace Attorney”, a
popular legal drama game which uses visual novel mechanics. The developers of
Socrates Jones used Ace Attorney’s mechanics but created dialogues and game content
to teach philosophical thinking. In the public sector, serious games have been used
in different scenarios, such as to ideate service delivery principles 9 and to train railway traffic controllers 10, among others. In the remainder, we review
serious games for open data and elaborate upon their potential contribution for
building data capacity. We define building data capacity as the process that
empowers citizens and civil servants to understand and reuse open data, thereby
creating the needed practical and analytical skills. This research will answer the
following research questions: 1. Which games – or types of games – have the
potential to build data capacity? 2. What kind of data capacity can these serious
games build? The review starts by looking at the list of games on the topic of open
data compiled by Kleiman 11. Entries are
filtered according to four criteria, selecting interventions that: (1) are
sufficiently documented, (2) fit the definition of a “game”, (3) must also fit the
definition of “serious game”, and (4) have an educational purpose that is related to
building data capacity. We analyze selected games using the classification by Grogan
and Meijer 12, assigning them a type based on
the kind of knowledge transferred or created by the game and its beneficiary.
To analyze the serious games selected in the review, we use the classification by
Grogan and Meijer 12. Starting from the type
of knowledge that the game deals with and its beneficiary (see table 1), Grogan and
Meijer 12identify four broad categories of
games. Policy games are based on real world scenarios so that the participant can
experiment with different solutions and gather knowledge about the scenario
represented in the game. Teaching games are based on a fictional setting, with the
knowledge transferred by the game being generalizable and not based on a specific
scenario. Design games “provide a participatory environment” [12, p.545 and can be used to ideate new artifacts and create
new knowledge. Finally, research games are used to observe participants in an
experimental setting and test hypotheses.
12
Knowledge beneficiary
Knowledge type
Participant
Principal
Generalizable
Teaching
Experiential learning
Dangerous tasks
Research
Hypothesis generation and testing
Artifact assessment
Contextual
Policy
Organizational learning
Policy intervention
Design
Interactive visualization
Collaborative design
The paper is structured as follows: first, we describe the methodology
used to compile a list of games for building data capacity. We then present our
results, giving a brief description of each game and summary of their main
characteristics and learning outcomes. We then discuss how serious games contribute
to data capacity building and which specific aspects of this process they aim to
tackle, followed by a summary of our conclusions.
The list of gamified interventions related to data compiled by Kleiman 11 was used as a starting point to map games for
data capacity. The list was screened using the following filters: 1) The
intervention should have sufficient documentation to allow for the intervention and
its educational content (if present) to be analyzed and categorized. This can
include game manuals, scientific publications, or an actual playable copy of the
game available online. 2) The intervention must be a game, meaning it must be an
“attempt to achieve a specific state of affairs (prelusory goal)” while being
limited by certain rules, which are accepted by the player(s) because they enable
the game play [13, p. 41 as cited by 14 . 3) The intervention must fit the definition
of “serious game” by Abt 6 as cited in
Djaouti et al. 15 , meaning it should have an
“explicit and carefully thought-out educational purpose” and the primary reason to
play should not be entertainment. 4) The intervention’s educational purpose must be
related to the goal of “building data capacity”, meaning it must be aimed at
providing skills such as general knowledge about open data, data reuse, or
operational and technical knowledge about how to use and visualize datasets 16 . The literature review on data-related
gamified interventions by Kleiman 11 included
a total of 23 entries. From these, two interventions were excluded as they didn’t
meet the definition of a “game” (filter 2). One intervention was excluded as it was
not sufficiently documented. Two interventions were excluded as they are not serious
games, but rather entertainment games (filter 3). Ten interventions were excluded
because, while they use open datasets to generate playable content, the educational
purpose of the intervention is not directly related to building data capacity
(filter 4). For example, Bar Chart Ball 17 ,
generates bar charts from various datasets, such as the percentage of people who
feel they can influence decisions in different cities in the UK. A ball is dropped
on top of the bar chart and starts sliding around under the force of gravity. The
aim of the game is “to control this ball, and make it go where they want” 17, p.1. While this is an example of a
data-related game and an interesting reuse of open datasets, its main educational
outcome seems to be the memorization of the shapes of different bar charts, which is
not directly related to building data capacity. For similar reasons, we filtered out
the other games described by Gustafsson Friberger et al. 18 which reuse datasets to procedurally generate content but
are not related to building data capacity. To describe and categorize the serious
games for data capacity building, we used similar variables to the ones suggested by
Katsaliaki and Mustafee 19. Variables to be
captured were selected based on their relevance and scope of this research and to
give a sufficient overview of the game’s general characteristics. In a similar
fashion to Katsaliaki and Mustafee 19, the
data was collected by researching available materials about the game (cards,
manuals, etc.), related publications, playing the games, or reading their
descriptions on the respective websites. For each game, the general gameplay and
rules are described, along with details about the game’s platform, genre, learning
objective, and learning purpose. In addition to this classification, hereafter, we
describe each game, and its expected contribution to data capacity building.
Further in the text we introduce the twelve games selected, along with a short
description of the rules and gameplay. The main characteristics of each game are
summarized in Table 3. Agenda 2030 Agenda 2030 is a discussion game for 6 to 31
players. A set of 50 cards representing 5 departments represent reports, maps and
documents which are needed to monitor the Sustainable Development Goals within a
local governmental context (Municipality of Teresina, in Brazil). One participant
plays as the database for the teams, and the others are distributed through the 5
different departments of the local government. Each team has a negotiator which
trades data with other teams. By trading cards, players need to find the specific
datasets to complete their SDGs indicators. Completing indicators give teams another
type of card, with random events, making the game more fun. The game ends when the
full indicator checklist is completed. Data Belt Data Belt is a four-player online
video game which shares some aspects with Winning Data (described later in this
list), such as the four different player roles, the basic dynamic of answering
citizen’s demands for public services, generating datasets, and deciding whether or
not to open. The game was tested in a pre-experimental setting and “participants
were more inclined to believe that some public sector data can be shared”20, p.162. The game can be useful when played
together my civil servants with different levels of experience in open data
decision-making, as it can facilitate knowledge sharing among the players. Data
Dealer Data Dealer is a single player online game about privacy issues related to
data brokers and the resale of personal information 21. The user fills the shoes of a corrupt data broker, trying to make as
much profit as possible from shady deals with tycoons and corporations. The player
owns a database connected to certain data sources (like dating sites and online
personality tests). Money can be invested to upgrade these data sources, therefore
capturing more data which can then be resold to corporations with dubious aims. Data
Dealer is a management game, where the player needs to carefully balance resources
to maximize profit. This game could be an important tool to understand the role of
data brokers and how they manage to harvest (legally and illegally) data from
different sources. Digital Identity game (Data gedreven werken game) The Digital
Identity game is a board game where players need to reach the center of the board
with remaining resources. Specific spots with discussion logo reduce the number of
available resources from players - representing the loss of pieces of her digital
identity. In some cases, disagreements between players need to be voted upon. The
search engine DuckDuckGo is used to solve doubts about operating services. As
defined by Zuboff’s Surveillance Capitalism, when the players lose all their
resources (a metaphor to giving away all her personal data), they are only the
carcasses that remain when the data is plundered 22. Datak Datak 23 is a single
player online game based on a journalistic investigation into the problematic
aspects of big data 24. In Datak, the player
interprets the role of a new hire as the assistant to the mayor of DataVille. Part
of the job is to make decisions that can affect the players and citizens, for
example by deciding what kind of precautions to take when archiving voters’
information or when a security breach occurs. Datak was developed after a
journalistic investigation; its aim is to raise awareness about the implications of
data collection and privacy violations. Datak could be useful in introducing a
non-expert audience to the most common ways in which data privacy rules are violated
and the basic terminology to describe these violations. Datascape Datascape is a
board game in which the players are given research questions that can be answered
using data 25. The players are also given a
stylized map, on which they need to point where to source the data from. Each
section of the map possesses certain data types such as light, weather, wind, water
level, etc. Datascape can play a role in introducing a non-expert audience into data
collection and the different sources of datasets. Dataspel Dataspel is a board game
in which a team leader is responsible to coordinate the team in making discoveries
based on data. Each member of a team has a certain role, either being a content
expert or a data expert. Each game round consists of three phases, from distributing
the work to analyzing the available datasets. Specific problems and politically
sensitive topics can influence the analysis and publications. Scores are defined
based on the number of points each team leader archives by the end of the game for
analyzing and publishing datasets. Datopolis Datopolis is a board game which can be
played by two to five players 26. Players are
presented with datasets of three different types: open, closed, and private. Open
datasets are public, and any player may use them to create new tools (services),
whereas a closed dataset may or may not be opened by the player owning it. Private
datasets can never be opened to other players. The game is designed so that players
need to negotiate which datasets to open and combine in order to build services.
There is a standard version and a short version which can be used during workshops.
Datopolis could be useful in showing how, to create a useful service or application,
developers need several entities to open datasets, which is sometimes challenging.
Jogo de Governo Aberto The Open Government Game is a card game involving 4 to 6
players, each of them receiving a specific set of cards to be used in the gameplay.
Each set contains actions related to specific actions on Transparency,
Participation, and Accountability. These are considered as the main pillars to an
open government, which the players must collaborate to achieve. The game has been
adapted for remote play in tabletopia 27
though it is still only available in Portuguese. Open Data Card Game The Open Data
Card game is an in-person game for multiple groups of three people 28, designed for ideation during workshops and
hackdays. The game is aimed at getting participants excited about the possible uses
and combinations of open datasets and generating new ideas. This game could be an
effective way of facilitating brainstorming during hackathons, when participants
need to think of ways to reuse datasets. Run that town Run that town is a
single-player mobile game which uses real data from Australia’s 2011 census 29. The player can enter their postcode to
customize the experience with data from their neighborhood. The player fits the
shoes of a local politician, taking decisions about what kind of public works to
initiate and where to spend money. Winning Data Winning Data is a four player
in-person role-playing game 30 about open
data. In Winning Data, players interpret the roles of civil servant, colleague,
citizen, and boss and need to collaborate to answer citizens’ demands for public
services. Just like in a real-life public office, this activity leads to the
creation of the datasets, which the team can either completely open to the public,
partially share (removing some personal information), or completely close. In an
experimental setting, after playing the game, civil servants had a “better
understanding of the positive outcomes of data opening” [31, p. 18, thus showing potential for building data capacity
among public sector employees. Similarly to Data Belt, this game can facilitate
knowledge sharing about the risks and benefits of opening a given dataset,
especially when a mix of more and less experienced decision-makers are playing. The
following two tables provide a summary of the selected case descriptions. Table 1
summarizes the cases (serious games) reviewed, their developer, availability (either
in-person gameplay or digital), type of game (board game, role-playing game, etc.)
and recommended number of players. Table 3 more specifically identifies each of the
games’ stated learning outcomes, their classification according to the categories
identified by Grogan and Meijer 12, and how
they each might contribute to building data capacity. As no specific classification
system for serious games and data capacity exists, we broadly labeled each game as
contributing to either debate, data awareness or ideation. Further research could
investigate how to apply existing frameworks on data literacy, such as the ODI data
skills framework 32, to serious games.
Title
Developer
Availability
Type
of game
Players
Agenda 2030
Teresina Municipality
(Brazil/Piaui)
In-person
Card; discussion
game
6-31
Data Belt
Independent 20
Digital
RPG; collaborative game;
quiz
4
Data Dealer
Independent 21
Digital
RPG; resource
management
1
Digital identity
game
Provincie
Zuid-Holland
In-person
Board game
2-6
Datak
dna studios for RTS
Digital
RPG; resource
management
1
Datascape**
Independent 25
Digital
Board game; Quiz
Unspecified
Dataspel
Provincie
Zuid-Holland
In-person
Card game; discussion
game
4
Datopolis
Open Data Institute 26
In-person*
Board game
2-5
Jogo de Governo
Aberto
IGA (Open Government
Institute), Fast Food da Politica, and CGU (Comptroller General
of the Union, Brazilian Federal Government)
In-person*
Card game
1-8
Open Data Card Game
Independent 28
In-person*
Ideation game
Multiple groups of 3
Run that town
Millipede for the
Australian Bureau of National Statistics 29
Digital
Resource management
1
Winning Data
Independent 11
In-person
RPG; collaborative game;
quiz
4
Game
Title
Stated
learning outcome
Game
category
Potential for data capacity building
Agenda 2030
Increase awareness on the
importance of data sharing for the Sustainable Development Goals
to be achieved
Teaching
Debate
Participants are invited to discuss the need for datasets to
be available in order to achieve the UN Sustainable
Development Goals
Data Belt
Peer to peer knowledge transfer about the possible
benefits and risks of opening certain governmental
datasets
Teaching
Debate
Civil servants can initiate discussions and share
insights on the benefits (and consequences) of
opening datasets, therefore building knowledge about
opportunities to share data with the public
Datopolis
Insight into
the role played by open and closed datasets in order to build
new services
Teaching
Debate; Data awareness
Players have insight into the negotiations, collaboration and
decision-making processes needed to open datasets
Jogo de Governo
Aberto
What is open government?
If you already know the topic and want to know more, or if you
don’t have the slightest idea what it’s all about, but you’re
curious: this game is for you!
Teaching
Data awareness
Players can understand the challenges to create open
governments and the role of open data to it.
Open Data Card Game
“The aim is to make it
easier for users to discuss and explore data, and generally to
get people more excited about the potential of open data [...]
The strength of this game comes from data-combining, which
enabled participants to see the potential of this data in a new
light.” 28
Design
Ideation
Players can generate new ideas about how to combine and reuse
datasets
Run that town
“[..] create awareness of
the role of the census in shaping the direction of policy and
its impacts on daily life” 29
Policy
Data awareness
Players can understand the role played by data in public
policy and political decision-making
Winning Data
To influence civil
servants’ attitudes towards open data and nudge them towards
opening more datasets while still considering privacy risks
Teaching
Debate
In debating whether or not to open a certain dataset, civil
servants share knowledge about the possible risks and
benefits of opening data
We defined building data capacity as the process of empowering citizens and civil
servants to reuse open data so that they can gain new insights about the world
around them and create better services. With our two research questions, (1) we
investigated which games – or types of games – have the potential to build data
capacity and (2) what kind of capacity they can build. As shown in the case
descriptions, serious games can play a significant role in building data capacity by
raising data awareness, facilitating debate around open data and ideation for data
reuse. However, from the review and analysis of existing games for building data
capacity, it emerges that most games only focus on a limited aspect of this process,
which is raising data awareness. In fact, most games only fit the teaching category
identified by Grogan and Meijer 12; meaning
that they focus on transferring generalizable knowledge to the players or between
the players. Only one example of a design game was found through the literature
review, the “Open Data Card Game”. When using the game in a workshop, the
facilitator can create card decks customized for the group that is about to play and
insert datasets that the players might be already familiar with. The group can then
use the custom cards to brainstorm together ideas for how to reuse these datasets,
thereby generating new knowledge. The presence of only one design game suggests an
interesting gap in games that can be used for ideation in the field of open data.
Design games have been used to successfully facilitate idea generation in other
fields. Brandt and Messeter 33 described
several design games used for idea generation and found that games facilitate this
process by creating artificial restrictions, which stimulate creativity. Agogué et
al. 34 created a serious game for the
employees of a company specialized in treatments for malnutrion. Each participant
had to interpret a persona described by the game, for example “rural school
director” or “deputy mayor of Jakarta East”. Participants had to come up with new
ideas that could create value for this persona. Game rules instructed players to
divide in groups and change their composition at regular intervals. Finally, players
could participate in a “marketplace of ideas” and work on the most promising
proposals. Agogué et al. 34 found that serious
games “play an effective role in supporting the management of heterogeneous and
divergent knowledge during ideation” 34;
p.423. There is a need to explore the potential of serious games to play a
similar role in ideation with data. “Run that Town” is the only example of a policy
game, which uses contextual knowledge to generate real-world scenarios. The game
achieves this by looking at census data for the player’s postcode, thus reflecting
the real conditions of the neighborhood. The lack of policy games that make use of
contextual knowledge is also an interesting gap. The review did not find any
examples of research games, which are used to test or generate hypotheses or to
assess other artifacts.
Our work presented a review of existing games that can contribute to building data capacity. To elaborate this review, we played several serious games and analyzed their content and game materials. We then categorized each game according to the type of knowledge it transfers and to which beneficiary. We also looked at the kind of capacity building that each game contributes to. The main finding that emerged through our review is that most games tend to build data capacity by raising data awareness. We found a lack of design games that can be used to generate new ideas about the reuse of open data. While this type of game has been successful in other fields, we only found one such example in the context of open data. Future research should explore the opportunities offered by different types of games, either by developing entirely new games or adapting existing ones from different fields.
AKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 955569.
This research is part of TODO project that has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 857592.
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